As we have all heard time and again, exercise is good. In fact, research has demonstrated that exercise is good. Not only is it beneficial now, but it will be advantageous 20, 30, even 40 years down the road. Physical activity is associated with lower risk for death, cardiovascular improvement and improved health status and maintenance (Walcott-McQuigg & Prohaska 2001). The benefits of exercise last into old age. In elderly populations, exercise has been found to improve reaction time (Hunter, Thompson, & Adams 2001). Furthermore, "good" aging was found to be predicted by seven variables, one of which was exercise (Valliant & Mukamal 2001). Not only is physical health important as one ages, but mental health is equally crucial. In a recent study, exercise was found to have a positive relationship with the psychological well-being of older adults (Wantanabe, Takeshima, Okada, & Inomata 2001). In light of all the benefits of exercising as we age, there are several factors that influence the elderly to begin and maintain an exercise program (Walcott-McQuigg & Prohaska 2001). We will look at these factors later in this summary.
As we age, our reaction time slows. Therefore, Hunter, Thompson, & Adams (2001) studied changes in reaction time with age and set out to determine the relationships among reaction time, strength, and physical exercise. Their study involved 270 healthy, independent women who were between the ages 20-89 living in Sydney, Australia. The research team found that, in general, there was a significant negative association between age and physical activity. Furthermore, they found that in women between ages 20-89, reaction time slowed at a rate of 0.57 ms/year. (Reaction time was measured by lower-limb reaction.) However, across age groups, physically inactive women had significantly slower reaction times than inactive women. This was found to be especially true in women over 79 years old. In addition, stronger women had faster reaction times than weaker women. Thus, we can conclude from this study that reaction time does improve with exercise. The best type of exercise (aerobic, strength, or flexibility) has yet to be determined.
Vaillant & Mukamal (2001) conducted a study in which two cohorts of adolescent boys (237 college students and 332 core-city youth) were followed for 60 years or until death. Physical examinations were completed every 5 years and psychosocial data was collected every 2 years. Exercise was one of seven predictable/controllable variables. Exercise in youth was able to forecast the quality of subjective and objective aging. Thus, there may be more control over one's biopsychosocial health after retirement than there was previously believed to be. To define well-being in old age, 6 factors were used. They were as follows: physician-assessed objective physical health and absence of irreversible physical disability, subjective physical health, length of active life, mental health, subjective life satisfaction, social supports. Individuals doing well in all 6 categories were described "happy-well." Regular exercise was also included in the group of independent predictor variables that were measured before age 50.
Vaillant & Mukamal (2001) suggested that psychological well-being might be positively affected by exercise. Thirty-three older adults (60-82 years old) participated in a study performed by Watanabe, Takeshima, Okada, & Inomata (2001). The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of an exercise intervention on older adults' psychological well-being. The participants took part in 3 supervised water-based exercises every week for 12 weeks. Heart rates corresponding to VO2-lactate thresholds were used as gauges of exercise intensity during these sessions. Moreover, energy expenditure was used as an indicator of physical activity. A survey was given both before and after the exercise intervention. The participants were divided into three groups: those who experience relatively low change, those who experienced moderate change, and those who experience high change in daily energy expenditure. The participants in the "high change" category also improved n the Depression-Dejection section of the Profile of Mood States. Self-efficacy may have played a role as well. Thus, further research should be done examining the relationship between exercise, social activity, and psychological well-being.
In an attempt to answer this question, Walcott-McQuigg & Prohaska (2001) conducted a study involving 103 African-American participants (46 male, 57 female) aged 55 years and older. The participants were divided into focus groups in which they discussed the meaning of health and exercise and the factors that influence exercise. The 5 Stages from the Transtheoretical Stages of Change were discussed. These were precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance. The participants were separated into groups based on gender and the stage that they were currently in. They were asked to answer multiple questions. Some examples are, "Are there benefits to exercise?" and "Is support from family and friends about exercise important?" The action/maintenance group had incorporated exercise into their assessment and actions as healthy individuals. In addition, they expressed confidence in their ability to overcome barriers to initiating exercise. This group cited social support from family, friends, and peers as important aspects in maintenance of exercise. Hence, it can be concluded that the sooner individuals enter the action/maintenance stage, the better their health will be as they age. Factors influencing the desire and ability to exercise include health, social support, efficacy, and motivation.
Much recent research has been conducted on the effects of exercise on aging. In all of the studies described above, exercise had positive effects on aging. It has been found to increase reaction time (Hunter, Thompson, & Adams 2001), assist in predicting "good" aging (Vaillant & Mukamal 2001), and improve psychological well-being (Wantanabe, Takshima, Okada, & Inomata 2001). Factors such as health, social support, efficacy, and motivation are indicators of the maintenance of exercise (Walcott-McQuigg & Prohaska (2001). In summary, one should acknowledge the factors influencing exercise, recognize the numerous benefits of exercise, and take action at any age in order to live a more healthy and happy life now and in old age.
Hunter, S.K., Thompson, M.W., & Adams, R.D. (2001). Reaction Time Strength, and Physical Activity in Women Aged 20-89 Years. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 9, 32-42.
Vaillant, G.E. & Mukaml, K. (2001). Successful Aging. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(6), 839-847.
Walcott-McQuigg, J.A. & Prohaska, T.R. (2001). Factors influencing participation of African-American elders in exercise behavior. Public Helath Nursing, Special Issue, 18(3), 194-203.
Watanabe, E., Takeshima, N., Okada, A., & Inomata, K. (2001). Effects of increasing the expenditure of energy during exercise on psychological well-being in older adults. Perceptual & Motor Skills, Special Issue, 92(1), 288-298.
Contributed by Marta Bultman, December 3, 2001.